One of the first tools to analyse verbal content was Statement Validity Assessment (SVA), which assumes that truths are qualitatively different from lies ( Undeutsch, 1967). Scholars have therefore suggested to explore verbal content. However, body language and facial expressions cues have shown to be unreliable cues to deception ( DePaulo et al., 2003 Vrij, 2008 Burgoon, 2018). Initially, the focus was on nonverbal cues ( Ekman and Friesen, 1969 Zuckerman et al., 1981 Ekman, 2001 Bond et al., 2015). Scholars working in the area of investigative interviewing and lie detection have spent over five decades searching for nonverbal and verbal cues to deception ( Vrij, 2008 Vrij et al., 2022b). The absence of significant effects for common knowledge details and self-handicapping strategies, the limitations of the experiment and suggestions for future research are discussed. Complications discriminated truth tellers from lie tellers. Participants were interviewed about a past experience concerning an out of the ordinary event. Seventy-eight participants were assigned to one of three different experimental conditions: Truth tellers (telling the truth about the event), embedders (providing a mixture of truthful and false information) and outright lie tellers (providing false information). The present experiment examined the effectiveness of the complication approach when varying the amount of lying, with an Italian sample. The complication approach, measuring complications (cue to truthfulness), common knowledge details (cue to deception), self-handicapping strategies (cue to deception), and the ratio of complications, aims to fill this gap in the literature. However, most verbal cues are cues to truthfulness (truth tellers report the cue more than lie tellers), whereas cues to deception (lie tellers report the cue more than truth tellers) are largely absent. 3Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdomĭeception research has shown that analysing verbal content can be effective to distinguish between truths and lies.2Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy.1Department of Human Sciences, Libera Università Maria SS.Letizia Caso 1 Lucrezia Cavagnis 2 Aldert Vrij 3 Nicola Palena 2 *
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